This project will extend current understanding of how and why immigrants create ethnic organizations in their adaptation to American society. Focusing on Haitian immigrants in New York City this study will explore a question neglected in theories of ethnic group formation and empirical research: What role do American organizations have in the creation and perpetuation of ethnic organizations? It is commonly assumed by social scientists and public leaders that new immigrants choose to adapt to American life by creating ethnic organizations. A study conducted 14 years ago by one of the investigators in this project found, however, that the first organizations created by recently-arrived Haitians were not formed on the basis of ethnicity until led to do so by American organizations. We hypothesize that our present day investigation of Haitian organizations will reveal that American organizations implicitly and explicitly still pressure Haitian organizations to adopt and maintain ethnic identity and that they succeed most when the Haitians are dependent on Americans for resources and models of behavior needed in adapting to American life. Information about ethnic and non-ethnic Haitian organizations and their relations to American organizations will be gathered from (1) extensive interviews with 300 Haitian and American leaders from 160 organizations, (2) participant observation of the activities of 60 Haitian organizations and their relations with American organizations, (3) an extensive collection of internal and public organizational documents, and (4) past studies of many of the same organizations to be studied today. Using these comprehensive data the extent of impact of American organizations on Haitians' adoption of an ethnic identity will be determined through a comparison of the ethnic orientation of Haitian organizations varying in their degree of dependency on American organizations for public recognition, information, services, material and financial support. The significance of this study lies in its theoretical contributions in explaining the origin of ethnicity in America and the role of American organizations in shaping ethnic groups. The project will provide practical insights for organizations assisting the adaptation of Haitians and other new immigrants.